Liquid Crystal Displays evolution into the future Essay

Liquid Crystal Displays evolution into the future - Essay Example iversity of Illinois argued with concern about the quality of monitors which by then were television sets used within the main computer producing very low quality pictures which were not well defined and difficult to identify the content and, or follow the programs that were being broadcasted (Adee, 2008, p. 81). Due to evolution of large and colored screens, the quality of pictures improved despite the high power consumption which was mainly as a result of large components with respect to the later versions but smaller compared to the older versions respectively, overheating, the quality became poorer afterwards due to constant overheating hence the need for a different screen monitor with better resolutions to help solve the problems that they had experienced previously with the cathode Ray Tube screens as well (Bellis, 2007, p. 37). This concern led to invention of LCD technology. The term â€Å"plasma† was used in regard to the technology because the pixels that enhance screen resolution depended on plasma cells. A plasma screen is a typical display panel contains millions of tiny plasma cells in compartmentalized spaces between two glass panels which when energized reflects light that focuses on the screen to create a field of view (Delepierre et., al, 2006, p. 30). LCD- This is a fourth state of matter after solid, liquid and gaseous states, which contains definite number of electrically charged particles. However, the interaction between the neutral particles and the charged particles plays a major role in determining the usefulness and the behavior of plasma. As the energized electrons move and vibrate between the two glasses, some of the electrons strike mercury particles moving through the plasma which increases surface area for the energy level in the molecules (Chemistry, 2011, p. 27). Each pixel in a plasma display comprises of three primary colors namely blue, red and green with respect to the IEE regulations, the voltage signal variations within

Analysis Of The Air India Airline Tourism Essay

Analysis Of The Air India Airline Tourism Essay It was founded by  J. R. D. Tata  in July 1932 as  Tata Airlines, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. On 15 October 1932, J. R. D. Tata flew a single-engine  De Havilland Puss Moth  carrying air mail (postal mail of  Imperial Airways) from  Karachis Drigh Road Aerodrome to  Bombays  Juhu Airstrip  via  Ahmedabad. Air India serves 11 domestic destinations and 18 international destinations in 11 countries across  Asia,  Europe  and  North America. Air India has two subsidiaries and two affiliated carries. Together Air India,  Air India Cargo,  Air India Express,  Indian  and  Air India Regional  form the  National Aviation Company of India Limited. Air India Cargo It was started in 1954. The airline operates cargo flights to many destinations. The airline also has on ground truck-transportation arrangements on select destinations. As a part of the IATA carriers Air India carries all types of cargo including dangerous goods and live animals. Air India Express Air India Express  is the low-cost  subsidiary of the airline which was established in 2005 during the aviation boom in India. It operates primarily to the  Persian Gulf  and  South East Asia through scheduled passenger services   Indian Indian  which is based in  Delhi  focuses primarily on domestic routes, along with several international services to neighbouring countries in Asia. Air India Regional Air India Regional or better known as Alliance Air serves mainly on Regional routes. Its main hub is  Delhis  Indira Gandhi International Airport. Tangible Assets Fleet and Material Resources Air India is gradually expanding its fleet. In the recent times seventeen new aircraft eight B777-200LRs and nine B777-300ERs have so far joined the fleet and apart from this 15 Airbus A-321s and 16 A-319s have also joined for Indian operations.  Air India now operates 28 weekly services on the international network to three destinations in the  Ã‚  USA New York, Newark and Chicago including a daily NonStop flight between Mumbai-New York and Delhi-New York following the induction of brand new Boeing 777-200LR in its fleet. With a fleet of 136 aircraft, Air India has been gradually expanding its network to cover new destinations in India and abroad. Given below are the details of the Air India Fleet: Network Air India currently operates international flights from Mumbai and 16 other Indian cities, viz. Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Hyderabad, Kochi, Kolkata, Kozhikode, Lucknow, Jaipur, Varanasi, Tiruchirapalli, Gaya and Thiruvananthapuram. Commencement of international operations from these cities has obviated the need for passengers from these regions to necessarily travel to Mumbai and Delhi, the traditional gateways, for taking international flights. Passengers boarding or deplaning in these cities can now complete their immigration and custom formalities at their city airport, both at the time of departure and arrival.   Additionally, Air India has code-sharing arrangements with other international carriers. International Hub: After taking the path of consolidation during the past one year, the airline has taken a major initiative towards strengthening its global network and has restructured its operations to Europe and USA by making Frankfurt its operational hub for West-bound flights.   Indian Hub: The Indian Hub resides at Delhi Mumbai Airports which houses facilities for connections to all major Indian cities. On the domestic front AI operates to 64 stations out of which 17 are connected to our international destinations. The 172-seater Airbus A321 aircraft connects all major metros, including all flights on the Delhi-Mumbai sector. Spacious cabin, comfortable seats and the luxury of in-flight entertainment make this a superior product that travellers look forward to. Star Alliance There has been a quantum jump in product profile resulting from induction of new aircraft and consequent expansion of network, Air India will be all set to join the Star Alliance by March, 2011. Once Air India becomes a member, passengers will enjoy enormous benefits, including seamless transfers while travelling across the world, more frequent flyer mileage points, code-sharing leading to a wider choice of flights and access to lounge facilities worldwide. Star Alliance, is a leading global airline alliance of 21 top international carriers. The Star Alliance network offers more than 17,000 daily flights to 916 destinations. Human Resources Air India has more Human Resources than it needs which is evident in the numbers employed. In 2009, 17% of the airlines expenditure went towards salaries which is enormous comparing it with private carriers for whom it was 9.5%. The merger didnt involve any retrenchment. Nor do any of the current recovery measures being discussed hold any ideas of reducing employee strength by huge numbers. Air India has 31,000 employees and 14 recognized worker unions apart from which there are several unrecognized ones. While the unions say they are open to being supportive for the development of a better future for the airline, they do not support privatization of the airline or retrenchment Apart from retrenchment, employees are also worried about the new structure adopted by the airline which they believe will work against their interests. This structure is the so-called SBU structure, one where a large organization is broken up into smaller units, each of which is run like an independent company in principle. In Air Indias case, the problem as discussed by some senior editors officials is that the strategic business unit structure isnt perfect. Under this structure, a Delhi airport manager reports to his strategic business unit head, while his performance will actually be reviewed by the executive director of the northern region. Adding to this the decision on rewarding this airport manager with a foreign posting is in the hands of the commercial director, who is based in Mumbai. The officials recommend is that this entire structure be done away with and a more equitable and just system is brought into place which assures long term sustainability of the organization. IT Technology Resources The IT integration between the erstwhile Air India and Indian Airlines is complete and new technology processes are put in place which are to assure high quality services to the customers. NACIL, the holding company of Air India, has entrusted SITA (Society International Telecommunications Aeronautics) with the task to implement an efficient online booking engine, departure control system, check-in and automated boarding control, baggage reconciliation system (BRS) and a frequent flyer programme. The deal which is a contract worth $190 million (Rs 845 crore) for a period of 10 years will also enable Air India to use SITAs Horizon Passenger Services System. According to SITA, the systems implemented will make Air India step into the league of unmatched technological supremacy on the technological front primarily this includes an integrated IT platform will enable Air India to streamline its ticket distribution system and save on high distribution cost. SITAs Horizon platform provides hosted PSS services to 140 airlines boarding 120 million passengers and will be used to deliver a single airline code which is extremely critcial in order to allow the seamless integration of the former domestic carrier Indian Airlines with Air India for the first time since they merged in August 2007. Another early deliverable will be enabling Air India to meet the requirements for joining the Star Alliance. SITA association with Air India with mission-critical services has been for more than 50 years, including network connectivity at all their domestic and international stations, check-in, air-to-ground communications, fares management and baggage tracing. Air India is now invited to join SITAs Horizon Advisory Board which sets the strategic direction for SITA as it engages with Oracle and other partners to deliver a next generation Passenger Services System which will greatly benefit Air India as it exploits new technology and open systems architecture. SITAs workforce in India along with its local partners NIIT and Mindtree now stands at almost 1,000 highly skilled personnel. Low Cost Resources: Livery Air India and  Indian  unveiled their new livery in May 2007. The logo of the new entity is a Flying Swan with the Konark Chakra placed inside it. The Flying Swan has been morphed from Air Indias old characteristic logo, The Centaur whereas the new Konark Chakra is reminiscent of Indians logo. While the aircraft is a new ivory in colour, the base retains the red streak of Air India. Running parallel to each other is the characteristically evident Orange and Red speed lines from front door to the rear door, subtly signifying the individual identities merged into one. The brand name Air India runs across the tail of the aircraft in  hindi signifying the importance of the National language. The Maharaja This Maharja which is now familiar figure first made his appearance in Air India way back in 1946. Bobby Kooka as Air Indias Commercial Director and Umesh Rao, an artist with J.Walter Thompson Ltd., Mumbai, together created the Maharajah. It began as an attempt as a design for an inflight memo pad grew to take Air Indias sales and promotional messages to millions of travellers across the world. Today, this iconic Maharajah of Air India has become a world figure. The logo has completed 56 years and become the most recognizable mascot the world over. The various ads depicting his antics, expressions, puns have allowed Air India to promote its services with a unique panache and an unmatched sense of subtle humour. In fact the Maharaja has won numerous national and international awards for Air India for humour, sense and originality in publicity. Dining Air India is constantly trying to create a gourmet experience in its dining. The airline offers a choice of menus to interest all types of tastes Indian and Continental. Apart from these, there is western cuisine, a choice of Asian specialities, and even Japanese meals on the India-Japan route. If any passenger has a special food requirement, there is a choice to choose from any of the twenty three special meals. The menus are constantly revamped and the wines carried on board live up to the food they complement. Meals are served in First Class seating to passengers in bone china crockery. Alcoholic beverages are served complimentary.   In-flight Entertainment Air India aircraft are the envy of any radio station with a rich collection of music on board in different genres. Passengers can choose from Indian popular music, Indian Classical, beautiful Ghazals, Bollywood hits and English songs from Western Classical, Pop, Jazz, Country and Nostalgia. A special channel for Regional songs with different routes and demographics has been compiled to suit all passengers coming from different regions. Air Indias video programmes include a choice of the most recent English and Hindi feature films. The finest in comedy, nature wildlife, adventure, action and life style are wrapped in a One-hour video magazine. There are special movies in Tamil, Malayalam, etc selected for passengers travelling from Kochi, Kozhikode and Chennai to the Gulf and Singapore.  Ã‚   On Ground Facilities: Lounges, etc   Air India has its own exclusive lounges at Delhi, London, Hong Kong and New York in addition to the one in Mumbai. At other international airports, Air India has tie-ups with other international airlines or local Airports Authorities for lounge facility.  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a lounge for unaccompanied minors as well.   Online Booking, Web Check-in, etc The quick, easy and convenient way to book AI tickets online through the Air India website. An e ticket will be generated and the details with the e ticket link will be emailed to the passenger.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Air India has extensive facilities for Web check in and Tele check in for its passengers to provide ease of facilities.

Northern and Middle Colonies :: American America History

Northern and Middle Colonies When the northern and middle colonies were founded, England had a strong hold over the colonies. They controlled development and the government, among other things. But as the colonies developed, they began to have an ever-growing sense of independence that was a threat to its English rulers. As a result of this England went through much trouble in constantly trying to regain full control of the colonies. Early in the Development of Massachusetts and the other New England colonies, the government of England had paid little attention to the colonies due to civil strife back at home. This neglect gave the colonies a somewhat independent feel. When Charles II came back to power in England, he decided to take a more active role in the English colonies of North America and stop the defiance of royal rule that was taking place. His first action was to give a charter to both Rhode Island and Connecticut, squatter settlements, which was a slap in the face to the colony of Massachusetts, which was, according to Charles II, ignoring royal rule. In 1684, as a show of power, Charles II revoked the charter of Massachusetts. The next action taken by England was the creation of the Dominion of New England. The primary purpose of the Domination of New England was too promote the English Navigation Laws which were not being followed. The Navigation Laws were meant to stop trade with non-English ruled countries. Another purpose of the Domination was to defend the colonies in case of attack by Native Americans in the area. The Domination of New England was very harsh in its rule. Headed by Sir Edmund Andros, he limited town meetings and put restrictions on such precious things as the courts, press, and schools. The Domination continued its rule, much to the dismay of the citizens, until the Glorious Revolution in 1688-1689. When the news of this revolution reached New England the Domination was immediately deteriorated. And Andros was sent back to England. Just when the New Englanders thought they had retained the freedom they previously had, when Massachusetts was made a royal colony and given a new charter. More English officials, judges, and clerks were sent to Massachusetts, many of who was not ft to hold the professions they were given. This greatly outraged the citizens of Massachusetts and further imposed their need for freedom.

Gender and Translation Essay

Abstract The aim of this study was to identify the role of the gender of the translator on the accuracy of the translation, and to determine whether there is any difference between the translations done by female and male translators in terms of translation accuracy. Two English novels and two translations for each, one done by a female and the other by a male translator, were selected. Each translation was compared with its source text, sentence by sentence, and based on some certain categories, their inappropriate renderings affecting the understanding of the ST, and in fact affecting the translation accuracy, were extracted. The total numbers of the observed inappropriate renderings of each group of the female and male translators were counted. Having analyzed the data and having applied some statistical analyses, the researcher discovered that the answer to the research question was negative and the null hypothesis of the research was supported. Key Words: gender, accuracy, mutedness, politeness, dominance 1. Introduction Every process of translation involves at least two languages and one message, which can be called form and meaning. In fact, the meaning is the message which is transferred by various features and it is the task of the translator to transfer the meaning of the ST into the TT. So, depending on different factors affecting the translator’s performance and the way the message is conveyed, different translations will be produced. Gender of the translator is one of the factors that may affect the product of the translator, and the accuracy of translation is an important feature in evaluating any translated text. This research aimed to work on the differences which might exist in terms of the accuracy between the translations done by male and female translators. Thus, the research question was as follows: â€Å"Is there any difference between the translations done by female and male translators in terms of translation accuracy? † In order to investigate the above mentioned research question, the following hypothesis was developed: â€Å"There is no difference between the translations done by female and male translators in terms of translation accuracy. † 2. Gender, Language, Accuracy and Translation 2. 1. Gender and Language: Language, socially and personally, is a significant part of man’s identity. Language and gender are linked and developed through man’s participation in every day social practice. It is proved through various investigations that the languages of men and women are really different (Holmes 1995: 1). In the past, women were invisible, yet today they believe that they possess a different voice, different psychology, different experience of love, etc. and also different culture from that of men (Coates 1997: 13). Many studies have been conducted so far, regarding the role of the gender â€Å"as a determinant of linguistic usage† (Stockwell 2002: 16). According to Stockwell (2002: 16), today the term ‘genderlect’ is used to refer to the different lexical and grammatical choices which are characteristically made by males and females; e. g. women in their talks use frequent certain color term, frequent certain evaluative adjectives, not sure intonation, tag phrases and super-polite expressions, such as euphemism, less swearing and more indirect words. Some of their language differences proved through various investigations are as follows: women are believed to be the talkative and gossiping sex (Graddol & Swann 1992: 70). Women speak softly, whereas men speak loud and such differences in the voices relate to their physical sexual differences; moreover, men are thought to be stronger and bigger than women (Graddol & Swann 1992: 13). Men use ‘I’, swear words and taboo ones more than women, and in order to continue the conversation and show the certainty, women use more hedges, expressions such as ‘I’m sure’, ‘you know’, ‘perhaps’†¦ (Coates 1997: 116, 126). According to Jepersen (cited in Coates 1997: 20), since women start talking without having thought, they are much more often break off than men without finishing their sentences. It is believed that women talk, compliment others and also apologize more than men do; moreover, in conversations women usually do not interrupt men’s words and they wait until they finish their talk (Holmes 1995: 2). Also, as Graddol and Swann (1992: 92) believe women talk more politely than men. But what is the linguistic definition of the concept of ‘politeness’? Politeness should be considered as â€Å"an expression of concern for the feelings of others† (Holmes 1995: 4). Holmes (1995: 6) believes that women are more concerned about the feelings of those to whom they are talking and they speak more explicitly than men; also, he says that women are considered as the members of the subordinate group, so they have to be polite. In mixed conversations, women use the minimal responses more than men and at appropriate moment, while men use such words less and often with delay to show their dominance and the powerlessness of the gender to which they talk (Coates 1997: 116). As mentioned before, men interrupt more than women and it is because they think they are more dominated and powerful (Coates 1997: 110). There is an idea that powerlessness is a feminine characteristic (cited in Graddol & Swann 1992: 91, 92). DeVault (2002: 90) believes that â€Å"the concept of â€Å"mutedness† does not imply that women are silent†. According to Coates (1997: 35), for centuries women were considered in a ‘muted group’ and this was the desired state of them; so this belief that women talk too much is because of this fact that they are required to express themselves to the dominant group of men and talk to them, so that they can be heard by them and this talking is against their mutedness. Consequently, women are considered as the subordinate group and men as the dominant one, and for this reason, females are doing their best in order to be heard by the society and express their abilities to males. But regarding their translations, it must be said since translation is the product of man’s language, it must have the same characteristics as that of language. So, every translation must reflect the characteristics of the language of its translator. 2. 2. Translation and Accuracy: In the process of translating a text, the message of the original should be preserved in the translation and this shows the fidelity or faithfulness of the translator to the original text. Beekman and Callow (1989: 33) believe that a faithful translation is the one â€Å"which transfers the meaning and the dynamics of the original text†; and by ‘transferring the meaning’, they mean that the translation conveys the ST information to the TT reader. According to Beekman and Callow (1989: 34), â€Å"only as the translator correctly understands the message, can he begin to be faithful†, and it is only then that â€Å"he can translate clearly & accurately†. In fact, faithfulness and fidelity are two terms which show how much the TT reconstructs the ST. Some translation theorists believe that the translation should be evaluated by considering its ST as â€Å"the yardstick† (Manafi Anari 2004: 34, vol. 2, no. 5). Manafi Anari (2004: 41, vol. 1, no. 4) defines accuracy as â€Å"the exactitude or precision of the meaning conveyed† and in fact it â€Å"implies conformity of translation with the original text in terms of fact or truth†. Also, he defines ‘accurate translation’ as a translation â€Å"which is the reproduction of the message of the ST† (Manafi Anari 2004: 34, vol. 2, no. 5). Newmark (1996: 111) believes that in translating a text, â€Å"the accuracy relates to the SL text, either to the author’s meaning, or to the objective truth that is encompassed by the text†, etc. According to the discussion above, accuracy can be considered as one of the representations of the faithfulness in translation, i. e. showing how accurately the translator has managed to reproduce the message of the ST into the TL. Larson (1984: 485) believes that in every translation, accuracy, clearness and naturalness are of the great importance. Regarding the translation accuracy, she believes that in some cases, when the translator tries to get the meaning of the ST and convey it to the TT, s/he may make some mistakes, either in the analysis of the ST, or in the process of conveying the meaning, and a different meaning may result; then, there is a need for a careful check regarding the accuracy of the translation. According to Khomeijani Farahani (2005: 77-78) based on what Larson proposed in 1984, the process of evaluating the accuracy of translation can be done in 2 possible ways: one way is recognizing the key words of the ST and their equivalences in the TT and comparing how close they are; i. e. determining whether the translator could convey the same and exact meaning of the ST by selecting the best target equivalents and whether s/he could achieve an acceptable accuracy or not. Another way is using back translation; i. e. translating the TLT into the SL, then, carrying out a contrastive analysis and if the retranslated text is reasonably close to the SLT, the translation has got the acceptable accuracy. Also, Waddington (2001: 313) has proposed a translation quality assessment method based on Hurtado’s (1995) model: Waddington’s â€Å"Method A† introduces three groups of mistakes which may exist in a translation. The first group of the mistakes, which consider the understanding of the ST message, is related to the accuracy of the translation; it contains inappropriate renderings affecting the understanding of the source text and divides them into eight categories: contresens, faux sens, nonsens, addition, omission, unresolved extralinguistic references, loss of meaning, and inappropriate linguistic variation (register, style, dialect, etc. ). Consequently, the term ‘translation accuracy’ refers to the translator’s understanding of the message of the ST and that how accurately the translator has managed to translate a text from one language into another. 2. 3. Gender and Translation Through reviewing the languages applied by women and men, and also by studying various aspects of their lives, it is revealed that women are considered as the subordinate group and men as the dominant one. Hence, it is for this reason that in recent decades, females are doing their best in order to be heard by the society and express their abilities to males. Over the past several decades and after the women’s movement, gender issues got involved in the language issues; meanwhile the translation studies developed more and more (von Flotow 1997: 1). Regarding the translation, it can be assumed that since translation is the product of the language of the human being, it might have the same characteristics as those of language. So, every translation might reflect the characteristics of the language of its translator. According to von Flotow (1997: 5), â€Å"gender refers to the sociocultural construction of both sexes†. During 1960s-1970s, feminist thinkers discussed socialized difference between women and men and the cultural and political powerlessness of these two genders (von Flotow 1997: 5). About the concept of gender, Sherry Simon (1996: 5) believes that â€Å"gender is an element of identity and experience which, like other cultural identities, takes form through social consciousness†. By reviewing the history of translation, we can discover that always there have been â€Å"well-known debates over how best to be faithful†; then, it is not   astonishing â€Å"that fidelity in translation has been consistently defined in terms of gender and sexuality† (Chamberlain, cited in Baker 1998: 93). For a long time, translation has been employed to explain women’s actions in public, and as von Flotow (1997: 12) has referred to Marguerito Duras, women lived in darkness for centuries, they did not even know themselves very well; then, while entering the public atmosphere, they had to translate what they mean. As claimed by Arteaga (1994: 2, cited in Simon 1996: 134), cultural and linguistic histories of every nation demonstrate the relationship between self and other; at present, in cultural studies, translation is considered as a metaphor expressing â€Å"the increasing internationalization of cultural production† as well as â€Å"the fate of those who struggle between two worlds and two languages†. According to Simon (1996: 134-135), marginalized group view translation as a means through which they can establish themselves in the culture and language of the dominant groups: women attempt to â€Å"translate themselves† into the men’s language and migrants try to translate their past experiences into the present. It is because of â€Å"the sense of not being at home within idioms of power† that has made many women and also migrants, such as Salman Rushdie, to believe themselves as being â€Å"translated beings† (Rushdie 1991: 13, cited in Simon 1996: 135). Translator and translation have been considered as marginalized, since some have believed that the original text has got superiority over the translation and that the translation is just an equivalent of the original and it is not an original in itself (Hatim & Munday 2004: 200). Historically, translation has been considered as a secondary and degraded version of authorship (Simon 1996: 39). As Simon (1996: 39) states, it has been appeared as a great instrument for women providing them to step into the world of literature and writing; translation helps women to express themselves through their writings and translations; for long, women have been limited to just translate and they have been only permitted to enter this specific secondary zone of writing; they have been forced to stand outside the borders of the dominant zone of writing and not been allowed to enjoy the position of authorship. Feminism and translation are both considered in the category of â€Å"secondariness† and both are served as instruments for the critical understanding of differences as it is described in language (Simon 1996: 8). The aim of feminist translation theory is to determine and to criticize the concepts of inferiority of women and translation, in both society and literature; for this purpose, the process through which translation has come to be feminized should be explored and the structures of authority maintaining such association should be troubled (Simon 1996: 1). By the passage of time, and through the achievements formed by feminists and their movements, women could express themselves and their abilities in society, and in fact, they could establish their identities in the world; just as Simon says, â€Å"feminism has also reordered lines of cultural transmission† (Simon 1996: 84). By means of translation, translators – often females – have created new ways of exchange; besides, they have opened new translation markets, and according to Simon (1996: 84), â€Å"in addition to the conceptual challenging of translation tropes, feminism has worked to establish new intellectual connections†. 3. Methodology The researcher compared some Persian translations with their English originals to discover whether there is any significant difference between the translations of the male and female translators in terms of translation accuracy. So, a comparative descriptive approach was adopted. In fact, this research was conducted through a descriptive corpus-based method. As the corpus of the study, two English novels and two translations for each, i. e. one by a male and another by a female translator, were compared regarding their accuracy. The researcher considered about 10000 words of each English novel and compared the original sentences with their Persian translations. The titles of the novels and their translations were as follows: ( Austen, J. (1813), reprinted 2003. Pride and Prejudice. Bantam Classic: New York. ( . ? . . . : ? 1385. ( . ? . . . : 1386. ( Bronte, E. (1847), reprinted 2003. Wuthering Heights. Bantam Classic: New York. ( . ( ). . . : 1386. ( . ( ). . . : 1385. 4. Data Analysis In order to discover whether male translators translate more accurately than female translators and to find out whether there is any significant difference between the accuracy of the translations of these two genders, the researcher chose two English novels and she compared the first 10000 words of each novel with their two translations, one done by a male and the other by a female translator. Here, the unit of the analysis was ‘sentence’; i. e. the researcher compared each sentence of the source text with its certain translation according to the first part of Waddington’s â€Å"Method A† (2001: 313) which is related to translation accuracy and contains the eight categories of the inappropriate renderings which affect the understanding of the source text: contresens, faux sens, nonsens, addition, omission, unresolved extralinguistic references, loss of meaning, and inappropriate linguistic variation (register, style, dialect, etc.). Examples below show the way the researcher analyzed the translations. Here, there are: * MT1: male translator of the Text 1 *FT1: female translator of the Text 1 * MT2: male translator of the Text 2 *FT2: female translator of the Text 2 Examples are as follows: ( But to be candid without ostentation or design – to take the good of everybody’s character and make it still better, and say nothing of the bad – belongs to you alone. (Text 2/ Sentence 220) ( (FT2): ? ? ? ? . ( Faux sens: make it still better: ( Addition: ? / ? / ( Omission: character/ or design ( (MT2): ? †¦ ? †¦ . ( Faux sens: ostentation: / to make it still better: ( Addition: ? / ( Omission: character ( They could not every day sit so grim, and taciturn; and it was impossible, however, ill-tempered they might be, that the universal scowl they wore was their everyday countenance. (Text 1/ Sentence 159) ( (FT1): ? . ? ? . ( Addition: ? / ?/ ( Omission: sit/ countenance/ universal/ they wore ( (MT1): ? . ? ? . ( Fauxs sens: grim: ( Addition: / / ? / ? ( Omission: they wore/ universal The researcher computed and then presented the number of the frequencies of each category of the translations in the following tables: MT1 |Contresens |Fauxsens |Nonsens |Addition |Omission |Unresolved Extralinguistic References |Loss of Meaning |Inappropriate Linguistic Variation |Total | |Frequency |3 |169 |0 |217 |193 |3 |32 |11 |628 | |Percentage |1 |47 |0 |60 |53 |1 |9 |3 |- | |Table 1: MT1’s Inappropriate Renderings. FT1 |Contresens |Fauxsens |Nonsens |Addition |Omission |Unresolved Extralinguistic References |Loss of Meaning |Inappropriate Linguistic Variation |Total | |Frequency |3 |136 |0 |163 |151 |12 |25 |2 |492 | |Percentage |1 |38 |0 |45 |42 |3 |7 |1 |- | | Table 2: FT1’s Inappropriate Renderings MT2 |Contresens |Fauxsens |Nonsens |Addition |Omission |Unresolved Extralinguistic References |Loss of Meaning |Inappropriate Linguistic Variation |Total | |Frequency |1 |136 |0 |139 |171 |16 |44 |62 |569 | |Percentage |0 |36 |0 |37 |45 |4 |12 |16 |- | |Table 3: MT2’s Inappropriate Renderings. FT2 |Contresens |Fauxsens |Nonsens |Addition |Omission |Unresolved Extralinguistic References |Loss of Meaning |Inappropriate Linguistic Variation |Total | |Frequency |3 |169 |2 |204 |201 |4 |67 |11 |661 | |Percentage |1 |45 |1 |54 |53 |1 |18 |3 |- | |Table 4: FT2’s Inappropriate Renderings 5. Discussion: Regarding the translations of the Text 1, the researcher found that the female translator translated more accurately than the male translator, since the number of the observed inappropriate renderings of MT1 was more than that of FT1. But regarding the Text 2, the researcher got an opposite result; i. e. she discovered that the male translator translated more accurately than the female translator, for the number of the inappropriate renderings of FT2 was more than that of MT2. So, based on the different findings obtained from the analysis of the Text 1 and Text 2, the researcher discovered there is no significant difference between the translations done by the female and male translators in terms of translation accuracy. 6. Conclusion According to the data analysis and findings obtained through studying inappropriate rendering cases affecting the understanding of the ST, and in fact, affecting the accuracy of their translations, which occurred in the translations of the male and the female translators, it was proved that there is no significant difference between the translations done by male and female translators in terms of translation accuracy. Thus, the null hypothesis of this research was supported. Here, it is concluded that the gender of the translator plays no significant role in the accuracy of the translation, and that it cannot be said whether female translators translate more accurately than male translators or vice versa. So, this study proved that the gender of the translator cannot be considered as a determinant factor in examining the translation accuracy. References Baker, Mona. (ed. ) (1998). The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Beekman, John. and J. Callow. (1989). Translating the Word of God. Zondervan Publishing House. Coates, Jennifer (1997). Women, Men and Language (A Sociolinguistic Account of Gender Differences in Language). 2nd Edition. London and New York: Longman. DeVault, Marjorie. L. (2002). â€Å"Talking and Listening from Women’s Standpoint: Feminist Strategies for Interviewing and Analysis†. Darin Weinberg, (ed. ) Qualitative Research Methods. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. , 88-111. Graddol, David. and J. Swann. (1992). Gender Voice. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Hatim, Basil. and J. Munday. (2004). Translation: An Advanced Resource Book. London and New York: Routledge. ` Holmes, Janet. (1995). Women, Men and Politeness. London and New York: Longman. Khomeijani Farahani, Aliakbar. (2005). â€Å"A Framework for Translation Evaluation†. Translation Studies, 3 (9), 75-87. Larson, Mildred. L. (1984). Meaning-based Translation: A Guide to Cross-language Equivalence. Lanham/New York/London: University Press of America. Manafi Anari, Salar. (2004). â€Å"A Functional-Based Approach to Translation Quality Assessment†. Translation Studies, 1 (4), 31-52. —– (2004). â€Å"Accuracy and Naturalness in Translation of Religious Texts†. Translation Studies, 2 (5), 33-51. Newmark, Peter. (1996). About Translation. Clevedon/Philadelphia/Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission. London and New York: Routledge. Stockwell, Peter. (2002). Sociolinguistics: A Resource Book for Students. London and New York: Routledge. von Flotow, Luise. (1997). Translation and Gender: Translating in the ‘Era of Feminism’. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Waddington, Christopher. (2001). â€Å"Different Methods of Evaluating Student Translations: The Question of Validity†. Meta, XLVI (2), 311-325. Also, available from: http://www. erudit. org/revue/meta/2001/v46/n2/004583ar. pdf [Accessed May 5, 2007]. ———————– [1] Contact Number: 09123274659 [2] Contact Number: 09124017793, 02133793821 E-mail Address: maliheh. ghodrati@gmail. com

Mutual Funds Essay

A mutual is a kind of investment-company that combines money from many investors and backers and invests the money in bonds, money-market instruments, stocks, other securities and sometimes even cash. A mutual fund in basic terms is a large group of people who lump their money together for management companies to invest. And, like most things in the world, there are fees and commissions involved. Mutual funds are managed by money managers, who capitalize the fund’s capital and try to produce capital gains and revenue for the fund’s investors. A mutual fund’s portfolio is organized and maintained to mimic the investment objectives defined in its catalogue. A mutual fund has many characteristics, which are listed below. Investors and backers purchase shares in the mutual fund from within the fund, or through a broker or fund agent, and cannot buy the shares from other backers on a secondary market such as the NASDAQ stock market or New York Stock Exchange. The amount that investors purchase their mutual funds shares for is the estimated net asset value or NAV per share in addition to any fees that the fund may charge at the time of purpose, such as sales charges, also known as sales loads. Mutual fund shares are convertible, meaning when an investor wants to sale their shares, they sell them back to the mutual fund or to a broker working for the fund at the net asset value less any fees the mutual fund may charge, such as deferred sales loads or reclamation fees. Mutual funds commonly sell their shares on a continuous basis, although some funds will stop selling when, for instance, they reach a certain level of assets under management. The investment portfolio of a mutual fund is typically managed by separate entities known as investment advisors that are registered with the SEC. Furthermore mutual funds themselves are registered with the SEC and subject to SEC regulation. There are many forms of mutual funds, which include index funds, stock funds, bond funds, and money market funds. Each type of mutual fund has a different investment objective, strategy and investment portfolio. Different mutual funds are also subject to different risks, volatility, and fees and expenses. Fees related to a mutual fund reduce returns on fund investments and are an important feature that investors should consider when buying mutual fund shares. Mutual funds come in two main types, categorized by how the fees are charged. The types are load mutual funds and no-load mutual funds. A load mutual fund charges for the shares/units purchased plus an initial transactions fee. The initial transaction fee is typically no more than 9% of the investment fund amount or can also be a standard fee contingent on the mutual fund provider. This fee is added to your purchase as a sales fee. There are a couple different types of load funds out there. Back-end loads mean the fee is charged when you redeem the mutual fund. A front-end load is the opposite of a back-end load and means the fee is charged up front. A no-load fund means investors and backers can buy and redeem the mutual fund units/shares whenever without a commission or sales charge. Some companies such as banks and broker-dealers may charge fees and commissions for the transaction and exchange of mutual funds. Many no-load funds charge a fee if you redeem them early. Most people endorse avoiding load funds altogether and studies have shown that load mutual funds and no load mutual funds offer the same return, however, one charges a commission fee. A 12B-1 fee is the yearly marketing or sharing fee on a mutual fund. The 12B-1 fee is treated as an operational expense and is incorporated in the fund’s expense ratio. The 12B-1 is usually between .25% – 1% of a fund’s net assets. The name of the fee comes from a segment of the Investment Company Act of 1940. An electronically traded fund or ETF is a security that follows an index, group of assets or commodity, but trades them like a stock on an exchange. Prices for ETFs change throughout the day when they are bought and sold. Because ETFs are traded like stock, they do not have NAVs calculated everyday. References 1. â€Å"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Information on Mutual Funds†. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Retrieved 2011-04-06. 2. Fink, Matthew P. (2008). The Rise of Mutual Funds. Oxford University Press. p. 9.